Historia del seculo vinti, Parte 4

(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)

Le organization del pace:

Le doctrina del Presidente Wilson:

Le 8 januario de 1919 le presidente statounitese Woodrow Wilson presentava al mundo un programma idealiste que respondeva al generalisate desiro pro le pace inter omne le populos qui habeva sufferite le disastro del guerra. Le parte central de su programma esseva 14 (dece quatro) punctos que summarisava conditiones international post le guerra e offereva un possibile reorganisation del systema international que evitarea un secunde e simile guerra disastrose.

Wilson voleva le recognoscimento international del independentia del paises occupate per Germania, le admission del principio del autodetermination del nationalitates, e le establimento de un organismo international que regularea relationes international e que garantirea le independentia e equalitate de omne le nationes, eliminante omne relationes diplomatic secrete, que habeva essite le causa de multe conflictos international.

Ille anque voleva pro omnes un garantia del libre navigation per le mares del mundo (puncto secunde) e le suppression de omne barrieras economic in le intercambio commercial (puncto tertie).

Altere punctos tractava relationes international general, como le juste regulation de affaires colonial (puncto quinte) e le disposition del territorios occupate per Germania. Ille voleva que le germanos evacuava Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, e Belgio. Quanto a Austria e Turchia, ille voleva le independentia pro le populationes diverse que iste paises habeva annexate. E quanto a Polonia, ille voleva garantias de su independentia.

Le francese Clemenceau voleva consolidar le victoria del alliatos sur le germanos, debilitante Germania permanentemente de maniera que illo nunquam poterea menaciar Francia.

Le prime ministro britannic, Lloyd George, voleva eliminar le competition de Germania contra Anglaterra como potentia naval e colonialiste e restablir un equilibrio politic inter le paises europee pro assecurar que Francia nunquam poterea attaccar Anglaterra.

Le italiano Orlando voleva assecurar le dissolution del imperio austrohungare e assecurar que nulle pais poterea menaciar le frontieras nord de Italia.

Le tractatos de Paris:

Durante januario, 1919--solmente unes pauc dies post le publication mundial del programma de Wilson--comenciava in Paris un elaborate conferentia de pace que excludeva le paises vincite. Iste conferentia includeva Japon, ma Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd George, e Orlando esseva le architectos de un serie de tractatos que establiva un nove structura politic inter le paises europee.

Post longe negotiationes, le conferentia produceva cinque pactos differente. Clemenceau esseva le architecto principal del Tractato de Versailles, que regulava relationes inter le alliatos e germania in 453 articulos, le quales le germanos nominava un "Diktat" pro le severitate exceptional del demandas del alliatos contra Germania. Il anque habeva quatro altere tractatos: (1) de San Germain con Austria, (2) Neuilly con Bulgaria, (3) Trianon con Hungria, e (4) Sevres, con le Imperio Ottoman.

Forsan le cambios le plus spectacular esseva le dismembramento del Imperio Austrohungare, que le familia Hapsburg habeva unificate plus o minus precarimente sub le controlo austriac. On declarava que Austria esserea un republica, e Hungria Checoslovachia, Polonia, e Yugoslavia emergeva como nationes independente. Austria anque debeva ceder a Italia le Tirol del Sud, Trieste, Istria, parte de Dalmatia, Carynthia, e Carniola.

Le alliatos anque dismembrava le Imperio Ottoman e anque voleva facer disparer Turchia como un pais independente, convertiente lo in un specie de protectorate de un del grande potentias vincente. Ma, a causa de lor fortissime nationalismo, le turcos preservava lor independentia al grande surprisa del altere paises de Europa.

Le Tractato de Sevres obligava que Turchia perdeva le major parte del territorios que illo habeva controlate, ma le Tractato de Lausanne, signate in 1923, permitteva que le turcos recuperava le Thracia oriental. Russia debeva abandonar Polonia, Lithuania, Estonia, Letonia, e Finlandia, que tunc deveniva statos independente. Ma plus tarde in le Tractato de Brest-Livotsk, Russia cedeva al germanos practicamente omne su territorios europee.

Le Tractato de Versailles restitueva Alsace e Lorraine a Francia, Schleswig norte a Danmark, le Prussia polonese a Polonia, e Eupen e Malmedy a Belgio.

Iste tractato anque obligava que le germanos cedeva al Societate de Nationes omne lor colonias e le administration del Saar, cuje minas esserea exploitate per Francia durante un periodo de 15 (dece cinque) annos.

Le germanos anque debeva demilitarisar le litore dextre del Rheno, e postea le alliatos lo occupava. Germania anque debeva dar al alliatos abundante material de guerra; 25% (vinti cinque pro cento) de su flotta de pisca, quantitates diverse de lor carbon e bestial, locomotivas, wagones, e altere productos industrial.

Le germanos anque debeva pagar al alliatos 269.000.000.000 (duo centos sexanta nove billiones) marcos oro in quaranta-duo annos, reducer lor armea a 100.000 (cento mille) homines, e eliminar le servicio militar obligatori.

In Europa on establiva novem statos nove, Polonia, Finlandia, Estonia, Lithuania, Checoslovachia, Yugoslavia, e anque le republicas de Austria e Hungria, secundo le principio de autodetermination del presidente Wilson. Iste principio haberea resonantia foras de Europa, stimulante movimentos de independentia in le colonias de altere potentias europee.

Le Societate de Nationes (SDN):

Le SDN, un organisation cuje fin primordial esseva conservar le pace e le ordine international, esseva establite durante le conferentia de Versailles a causa del influentia del presidente Wilson. Su prime membros esseva le vincitores del Prime Guerra Mundial, le sol potentias que habeva un derecto a participar in le conferentia, ma le Statos Unite non se faceva parte del SDN proque le senato statounitese non approbava le tractato que lo establiva.

Le paises vincite durante le guerra non voleva formar parte del SDN proque illo esseva un organismo controlate per le paises vincitor, le quales voleva mantener le status quo establite per le diverse tractatos signate in Paris. Le SDN anque non habeva le fortias armate necesse pro imponer su decisiones in casos de conflicto inter su membros. Le SDN tamen habeva unes victorias symbolic, pro exemplo post le congresso de Locarno (1925 [mille nove centos vinti e cinque]), que resultava in un dialogo incoragiante inter paises traditionalmente hostile, como Germania e Francia.

Le quatro annos sequente reduceva le differentias inter le alliatos e Germania, producente eventualmente le Republica de Weimar, que se jungeva al SDN, signante un nove tractato de pace francogerman, que terminava le occupation del Rheno per le alliatos.

Ma le SDN non poteva impedir le invasion de China per Japon in 1931 e le invasion italian de Abysinia (nunc Ethiopia). Post que Hitler sasiva le governamento de Germania in 1932, Germania e altere paises abandonava le SDN, e in pauc tempore le SDN disintegrava completemente.

Le Russia czariste e le movimento socialiste:

Le revolution de octobre, 1917 (mille novecentos dece septe), habeva pro Russia etiam plus importantia que le Guerra Mundial mesme, e su effectos esserea enorme etiam pro le resto del mundo.

In le annos ante le guerra le governamentos del paises occidental con forte economias industrial--como Anglaterra, Francia, e Germania--habeva observate con timor le evolution del socialismo, cuje crescente talentos pro organisar movimentos de protesta menaciava le traditional establimentos economic e politic del paises industrialisate. Le proletariato de iste paises constantemente augmentava e se jungeva al socialistas, qui deveniva un fortia politic de plus in plus menaciante.

Le conditiones del Russia czariste esseva quasi medieval in multe partes del pais, e su industrialisation esseva primitive comparate al progresso industrial de paises como le Statos Unite e le paises industrialisate del Europa occidental. Le proletariato russe se concentrava in nucleos insulate circumferite per un grande massa de paisanos liberate del feudalismo solmente ante un seculo.

In lor guerra pro occupar Manchuria, le Russos non poteva prevaler contra un Japon fortemente industrialisate, e il deveniva evidente que le governamento de Nicholas II non poteva ni defender le pais multo ben de menacias exterior ni provider multo facilemente le necessitates basic de su population. E durante le Prime Guerra Mundial, Germania e Austria anque voleva destabilisar le governamento de Russia e tacitemente adjuvava le revolutonarios russe.

Lenin e le Ascension Bolchevic:

Lenin, exiliate in Switza, retornava a Russia e lanceava un campania pro "pace, terra, e pan". Ille habeva un capacitate extraordinari pro attraher crescente numeros ex le massas de Russia al programma bolcheviste.

In julio le governamento russe, timente un complot, moveva aggressivemente contra le bolchevicos, imprisionante Leon Trotsky, qui habeva retornate de su exilio in le Statos Unite.

Lenin tunc se videva obligate a passar al clandestinitate. Le 9 de augusto le menchevico Kerenski esseva nominate le chef del governamento. Le menshevicos esseva socialistas qui preferiva reformas moderate e gradual al programma drastic e radical del bolchevicos.

Le octobre rubie:

Post disputas apsere, Lenin convinceva le Committee Central de su partito del necessitate del insurrection armate. Leon Trotsky formava le strategia pro le lucta e lo dirigeva. Ille projectava occupar Petrogrado e le Palatio de Hiberno, le sede del governamento provisional.

Le menchevicos habeva formate le Committee del Defensa del Revolution, que debeva occupar se del securitate de un nove governamento socialiste contra intentos de un colpo reactionari post que le fortias militar regular de Petrogrado habeva essite inviate al fronte de guerra, e le bolchevicos tosto poteva sasir iste committee e converter lo a lor proprie scopos.

Le 24 de octobre le governamento de Karenski discoperiva le manovras del bolchevicos e declarava un stato de assedio, ma le fortias del menchevicos non esseva assatis grande pro frustrar le intentiones del bolchevicos, qui sasiva omne poter politic con un minime perdita de vita.

Occupate le edificios principal del urbe, le Palatio de Hiberno cadeva le die sequente (7 [le septe] de novembre in le calendario occidental).

Le bolchevicos immediatemente assembleva le Secunde Congresso del Soviets e formava un Consilio de Commissarios del Populo, presidite per Lenin, qui promulgava un declaration de armistitio e del abolition del proprietate private del terra in omne le territorios russe.

Del assemblea constituente al guerra civil:

Un mense postea le bolchevicos organisava le Assemblea Constituente, que includeva representantes de omne le Russias. Le bolchevicos obteneva solmente 24% (vinti e quatro pro cento) del votos, ma conjunctemente con le votos de lor alliatos, Lenin e su compatriotas assembleva un majoritate absolute. Le resultato de iste maniovras esseva un guerra civil contra le cossacos e un armea de voluntarios, que se formava con le adjuta generose de Anglaterra e Francia.

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Organizing the Peace:

President Wilson's Doctrine:

On January 18, 1919 (nineteen nineteen), the American president Woodrow Wilson presented to the world an idealistic program that responded to the generalized desire for peace among all the people who had suffered from the disaster of the war. Central to his program were the fourteen points that summarized international conditions after the war and offered a possible reorganization of the international system that would avoid a second and similar disastrous war.

Wilson wanted international recognition of the independence of the countries occupied by Germany, the approval of the principle of self-determiination for different nationalities, and the establishment of an international organization that would regulate international relations and that would guarantee the independence and equality of all nations, eliminating all secret diplomatic relations, which had been the cause of many international conflicts.

He also wanted for everyone a guarantee of free navigation throughout the oceans of the world (Point 2) and the suppression of all economic barriers in commercial exchange (Point 3).

Other points dealt with general international relations, such as the fair regulation of colonial affairs (Point 5) and the fate of the teritories occupied by Germany. He wanted the Germans to evacuate Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Belgium. Regarding Austria and Turkey, he wanted independence for the different populations that these countries had annexed. And regarding Poland, he wanted guarantees of its independence.

Clemenceau of France wanted to consolidate the victory of the allies over the Germans, weakening Germany permanently so that it would never be able to menace France.

The British prime minister, Lloyd George, wanted the elimination of German naval and colonial competition against England and the the re-establishment of a political equilibrium among the European countries to assure that France would never be able to attack England.

Orlando of Italy wanted to assure the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire and assure that no country would ever be able to attack Italy.

The Paris Treaties:

In January 1919 (nineteen nineteen)--only a few days after the world-wide publication of Wilson's program--Paris became the site of an elaborate peace conference that would exclude the conquered countries. This conference included Japan, but Wilson, Clemenceau, Lloyd Geroge, and Orlando were the architects of a series of treaties that established a new political structure among the European countries.

After lengthy negotiations, the conference produced five different pacts. Clemenceau was the principal architect of the Treaty of Versailles, which regulated relations between the Allies and Germany in 453 articles, which the Germans called a "Diktat" because of the exceptional severity of the Allies' demands on Germany. There also were four other treaties: (1) San Germain, (2) Neuilly with Bulgaria; (3) Trianon with Hungary, and (4) Sevres, with the Ottoman Empire.

Perhaps the most spectacular changes involved breaking up the Austro-Hungarian Empire, which the Hapsburg family had unified more or less precariously under the control of Austria. Austria was declared to be a republic, and Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia emerged as independent nations. Austria also had to cede to Italy the Southern Tirol, Trieste, Istria, part of Dalmatia, Carynthia, and Carniola.

The Allies also dismembered the Ottoman Empire and also wanted to dismantle Turkey as an independent country, converting it into a sort of protectorate of one of the great conquering powers. But, because of their very strong nationalism, the Turks preserved their independence to the great surprise of the other countries of Europe.

The Treaty of Sevres obliged Turkey to give up most of the territories that it had controlled, but the Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, allowed the Turks to recover Eastern Thrace. Russia had to abandon Poland, Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, and Finland, which then became independent states. But later on in the Treaty of Brest-Livotsk, Russia ceded to the Germans all its European territories.

The Treaty of Versailles restored Alsace and Lorraine to France, North Schleswig to Denmark, Polish Prussia to Poland, and Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium.

This treaty also obliged the Germans to cede to the League of Nations all their colonies and the administration of the Saar, whose mines were to be exploited by France for a period of fifteen years.

The Germans also had to demilitarize the right side of the Rhine, and afterwards the Allies occupied it. Germany also had to give to the Allies abundant war materiel; 25% (twenty-five percent) of its fishing fleet, various quantities of their coal and cattle, locomotives, rolling stock, and other different products of industry.

The Germans also had to pay the Allies 269,000,000,000 (two hundred sixty-nine billion) gold marks in forty-two years, reduce their army to 100,000 (one hundred thousand) men, and eliminate military conscription.

In Europe nine new states were established, Poland, Finland, Estonia, Lithuania, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, as well as the republics of Austria and Hungary, according to President Wilson's principle of self-determination. This principle would resonate outside Europe, stimulating independence movements in the colonies of the other European powers.

The League of Nations:

The League of Nations, an organization whose most important goal was to maintain international peace and order, was established during the Versailles conference because of President Wilson's influence. Its first members were the winners in the First World War, the only powers that had a right to participate in the conference, but the United States did not join the League because the American senate did not approve the treaty that established it.

The countries that were defeated in the war did not want to join the League of Nations because it was an organization controlled by the conquering countries, which wanted to maintain the status quo established by the various treaties signed in Paris. The League also did not have the armed forces needed to impose its decisions in cases of conflict between its members. It had some symbolic victories, however, for example after the Congress of Locarno (1925 [nineteen twenty-five]), which resulted in an encouraging dialogue among traditionally hostile countries, like Germany and France.

The next four years reduced the differences between the allies and Germany, producing eventually the Weimar Republic, which joined the League of Nations, signing a new peace treaty with the French, which ended the occupation of the Rhine by the allies.

But the League was not able to stop the invasion of China by Japan in 1931 and the Italian invasion of Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). After Hitler seized the government of Germany in 1932, Germany and other countries left the League, and shortly afterward it completely disintegrated.

Czarist Russia and the Socialist Movement:

The revolution of October, 1917 (nineteen seventeen), was even more important for Russia than the World War itself, and its effects would be enormous even for the rest of the world.

In the years before the war the governments of the Western countries that had strong economies--like England, France, and Germany--had worried greatly as they followed the evolution of socialism, whose growing talents for organizing protest movements menaced the traditional political and economic establishments of the industrialized countries. The proletariat of these countries grew constantly and joined the socialists, who became an ever more menacing political force.

Conditions in czarist Russia were almost medieval in many parts of the country, and Russian industrialization was primitive compared with the industrial progress of countries like the United States and the industrialized countries of Western Europe. The members of the Russian proletariat were concentrated in isolated centers surrounded by a great mass of peasants liberated from feudalism only a century earlier.

In their war to occupy Manchuria, the Russians were not able to prevail against a strongly industrialized Japan, and it became evident that the government of Nicholas II would not be able either to defend the country very well from foreign threats or provide very easily the basic necessities of its population. And during the First World War, Germany and Austria also wanted to destabilize the government of Russia and tacitly helped out the Russian revolutionaries.

Lenin and the Rise of the Bolsheviks:

Lenin, exiled in Switzerland, returned to Russia and launched a campaign for "peace, land, and bread." He had an extraordinary capacity to attract growing numbers of the masses of Russia to the Bolshevik program.

In July the Russian government, fearing a conspiracy, moved aggressively against the Bolsheviks, imprisoning Leon Trotsky, who had returned from his exile in the United States.

Lenin then found it necessary to conduct his operations underground. On August 9 (the ninth of August) the Menshevik Kerenski was nominated the head of the government. The Mensheviks were socialists who prefered moderate and gradual reforms to the drastic and radical program of the Bolsheviks.

Red October:

After heated arguments, Lenin convinced the Central Committee of his party of the need for armed rebellion. Leon Trotsky developed the strategy for the fight and directed it. He focused on occupying Petrograd and the Winter Palace, the seat of the provisional government.

The Mensheviks had formed the Committee for the Defense of the Revolution which had to concern itself with the security of a new socialist government against reactionary coup attempts after the regular military forces at Petrograd had been sent to the war front, and the Bolsheviks soon were able to seize this committee and use it to further their cause.

On October 24 (October the twenty-fourth) the Karenski government found out about the maneuvering of the Bolsheviks and declared a state of siege, but the forces of the Mensheviks were not large enough to frustrate the intentions of the Bolsheviks, who seized all political power with a minimum loss of life.

With the occupation of the principal buildings of the city, the Winter Palace fell the next day (November 7 [November seventh] in the Western calendar).

The Bolsheviks immediately assembled the Second Congress of the Soviets and formed a Council of the People's Commissars, presided over by Lenin, who declared an armistice and the abolition of land as private property in all Russian territories.

From the Constituent Assembly to Civil War:

A month later, the Bolsheviks organized the Constituent Assembly, which included representatives from all the Russias. The Bolsheviks got only 24% (twenty-four percent) of the votes, but together with the votes of their allies, Lenin and his compatriots assembled an absolute majority. The result of these maneuvers was a civil war against the Cossacks and a volunteer army, which was formed with the generous help of England and France.