Notas sur le grammatica de interlingua

(Languages of this post: Interlingua, English)

Le grammatica de interlingua es multo simple, e on pote apprender multo sur illo legente textos bi- e multilingue. Ma pro alicunes iste notas breve poterea esser utile:

SUBSTANTIVOS:

Larticulo determantive es “le” sin veriationes pro genere o pro numero: “le melodia, “le melodias”, “le animal, le animales”, “le patre”, “le patres”, “le libro le libros”, “le error, le errores”.

Le articulo indeterminative es “un” sin variatones per genere o numero: “un patre”, “un matre”, “un homine”, “un femina”, “un puero”, “un puera”, etc.

Le plural del substantivos se forma con “–s” o –“es” si le substantivo termina con un consonante (Si le substantivos termina in “–c”, on adde “–hes” pro formar le plural. Nota que iste es un characteristica anque del orthographia italian, que usa le forma “che” in vice del forma “que” que se trova in interlingua e altere linguas romanic.

ADJECTIVOS:

Le adjectivo es invariabile. Illo non ha formas differente pro genero o numero: “le brave soldato”, “le brave soldatos”; “le brave matre”, “le brave matres”.

Le comparation del adjectivos es con “plus”, “minus”, e “tan”: “Alberto es tan alte como Alicia”, “Alberto es plus alte que Alicia”, “Alberto es minus alte que Alicia”.

Le superlativo se exprime con “le plus”: “Alberto es le plus alte de omne le homines del gruppo”.

Le comparation pro equalitate se exprime con “tanto…como” o “si…como”: “Alberto es tanto alte como Alicia”, “Alberto es si alte como Alicia”.

Le adjectivo pote preceder o sequer le substantivo, ma plus frequentemente illo lo seque: “un libro interessante”, “le brave soldato”.

“Bon”, “mal”, “grande”, e “parve” pote esser comparate como omne altere adjectivo, ma existe formas alternative pro iste adjectivos: “bon, melior, optime”, “mal, pejor, pessime”, “grande, major, maxime”, e “parve, minor minime”.

ADVERBIOS:

Le suffixo “-mente” se usa pro formar un adverbio de un adjectivo: “natural, naturalmente”, “clar, clarmente”, “extrememente interessante”.

On pote formar un adverbio de “certe” con “-mente”: “certemente”, ma existe un forma alternative” “certo”.

Si un adjective termina in “-c”, on adde “-amente” pro su forma adverbial: “photographic, photograficamente”.

PRONOMINES:

Le pronomines personal singular es “io”, “tu”, “ille”, “illa”, e “illo” (neutre). Le pronomines plural es “nos”, “vos”, “illes”, “illas”, e “illos”.

Le formas accusative e dative del pronomines es “me”, “te”, “le”, “la”, “lo”, “nos”, “vos”, e “les/las/los”. On anque pote exprimer le dative con le prepositiones “a” o “pro”: “Ille dava le libro a Alicia. > Ille la lo dava”, “Ille la lo faceva. > Ille lo faceva pro illa”. Iste ultime duo formas es le plus clar.

Le forma “il” se usa in asseverationes como “Il niva” e “il face frigide”.

“Il” plus un forma de “haber” se usa pro indicar le existentia simple: “Il ha un serpente in le casa”. “Il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno”.

“On” es un pronomine indefinite que se usa como le subjecto de un asseveration: “On dice que il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno”. Un altere maniera de exprimer iste concepto es con “se”: “Se dice que il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno”.

ADJECTIVOS POSSESSIVE:

Le adjectivos possessive es “mi”, “tu”, “su”, “nostre”, “vostre”, e “lor”. Pro personas qui parla francese o italiano, iste forma es natural. Personas qui parla un lingua romanic del Peninsula Iberic debe evitar le uso de “su” in asseverationes como “Illes parla lor linguas native multo ben”. “Illes parla su linguas native multo ben” non es correcte in interlingua.

Nota iste formas: “mi casa e le tue”, “mi casa e le sue”, “lor casa e le nostre”, “lor casa e le vostre”, “mi casa e le lore”. Iste formas anque ha versiones plural: “mi casa e le sues”, “lor casa e le nostres”, “lor casa e le vostres”, “mi casa e le lores”.

NUMEROS:

Le numeros cardinal es “un”, “duo”, “tres”, “quatro”, “cinque”, “sex”, “septe”, “octo”, “novem”, “dece” (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) e “vinti”, “trenta”, “quaranta”, “cinquanta”, “sexanta”, “septanta”, “octanta”, “novanta”, “cento”, “mille” (20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1.000) e “dece (e) tres”, “septanta (e) novem”, “cento (e) vinti (e) duo”, “mille duo centos octanta (e) cinque” (13, 79, 122, 1.285).

Le numeros ordinal es “prime”, “secunde”, “tertie”, “quarte”, “quinte”, “sexte”, “septime”, “octave”, “none”, “decime” (1e, 2e, 3e, 4e 5e, 6e, 7e 8e, 9e, 10e), “dece prime”, “dece secunde” … “dece none” (11e 12e, … 19e), “vintessime”, “vinti prime”, “venti secunde”, “trentessime”, “trenta tertie” (20e, 21e, 22e, 30e, 33e) “quarantesime”, “cinquantesime”, “sexantesime”, “septantesime”, “octantesime”, “novantesime”, (40e, 50e, 60e, 70e, 80e, 90e), “cento novantesime” (190e) cento novanta octave (198e) “mille tres centos trenta prime” (1331e).

VERBOS:

Le infinitive del verbos pote finir in “-ar” o in “-er” o en “-ir”: “amar”, “leger”, “dormir”.

Pro formar le presente on elimina le “-r” del infitivo: “ama”, “lege”, “dormi”. Le verbos “esser”, “haber”, e “vader” ha formas abbreviate in su presente, “es”, “ha”, “va”. Le presente, (como le altere tempos) non cambia pro persrona o numero: “(io, tu, ille/illa/illo, nos, vos, illes/illas) ama”.

Verbos reflexive del tertie persona se forma con “se”: “Petro ama mover se”, “Petro e Roberto se move”.

Le passato se forma con le suffixo “va”, que se adde al presente: “io parla > io palava”, “io usa > io usava”. Pro exprimer le passato recente on usa “venir de”: Io veni de mangiar.

Pro formar le futuro, on adde “-a” al infinitivo: “nos essera”, “illa laborara”. Le futuro immediate o proxime se exprime con “va” o “va a” e le infinitivo (in altere parolas le presente de “vader” e le infinitivo: “Illa va (a) laborer”.

Tempores progressive pote exprimer se con le expression “star a”: “Ille sta a lavorar in iste momento”.

Le participios passate de infinitivos que termina con “-ar” es “-ate” (“parlar”, “parlate”). Le altere verbos termina con “-ite”: (“viver > vivite”; “audir > audite”).

Le tempores perfecte se forma con “haber” e le participio presente de un verbo: “Io ha vivite”, “Tu habeva vivite”, “Ille habera vivite”.

Pro formar le participio presente, le verbos que fini in “-ar” elimina le “-ar” e adde “-ante”: “amar > amante”. Le verbos que fini in “-er” elimina le “-er” e adde “-ente”: “leger > legente”. Le verbos que fini in “-ir” elimina le “-ir” e adde “-iente”: “finir > finiente”.

Pro formar le conditional, se adde “-ea” al infinitivo: “desirar > desirarea”, “servir > servirea”, “proponer > proponerea”.

In interlingua non existe le subjunctivo. Solmente le verbo “essere” ha le forma “sia”. Exemplos: “Si io esseva ric, io comprarea un grande villa”, “Si io habeva essite ric, io haberea comprate un grande villa”. “Que illa veni!”

Le verbo auxiliar es “esser” in asseverationes passive. Illo se usa con participios passate: Le preposition “per” se usa como le agente in un asseveration passive: “Petro es amate per Anna”, “Le libro esseva legite per Andrea”.

Le imperativo ha le mesme forma del tempore presente: “Continua!” “Stoppa!”. Le forma de cortesia del imperative es “vole ben”: “Vole ben continuar/fermar…”. Pro le prime persona plural se pote usar “vamos”: “Vamos continuar”. Anque se pote usar le parola “que” plus le indicativo: “Que nos continua!” Pro le altere personas e numeros solmente se pote usar “que”: “Que illa veni!”, “Que vos parla!”, “Que tu parla a tu matre!”

LE PRONUNCIATION:

Le pronunciation de multe litteras es como in altere linguas europee. Il es importante tamen notar le pronunciation del litteras sequente:

Le litteras “cc” ante “e”, e “i” sona como “cts” (pro exemplo “accento [aktsénto]” e “accender [aktsendér]”.

Le digrapho “ch” normalmente sona como “k”, pro exemplo “architecto (arkitékto)”, “bronchitis (bronkítis)”, “chirurgo (kirúrgo)”, e “psyche ([p]síke)”. In vocabulos de origine francese le “ch” sona como “sh” in anglese, pro exemplo artichoc (artishók).

Le littera “g” normalmente sona como le valor international de iste littera, pro exemplo in “grande”, “agente”, “collegio”, “geographia”, “pedagogia”, “vage”. Ma illo se pronuncia como le francese in le suffix “-age (ázhe)”, “-agiar (azhár)”, e “-agiose (azhóse)”. Isto anque es ver in alicun parolas in “--age” (pro exemplo “avantage (‘avantázhe’ o ‘avantdázhe’)”, “viage (‘viázhe’ o ‘viádzhe’), “forgia (‘fórzha’ o ‘fórdzhe’)”, “legier (‘lezhyér’ o ‘ledzhér’)”, “mangia (‘mánzha’ o ‘mándzha’)”.

Le litteras “gn” nunquam sona como le “gn” francese ma como un “g” sequite immediate per un “n”: gnomo, magnific.

Le littera “h” pote esser un pauco aspirate in parolas como “haber” e “hotel”. Illo es mute in le digraphos “th”e “rh” como in “rhapsodia”, “rheumatismo”, “athleta”, “throno”, “rhythmo”.

Le littera “j” sona generalmente como in francese, como in “jocar (zhokár)”, e illo pote pote pronunciar se como le “i” semivocal in parolas como “adjutar (‘adzhutár’ o ‘adyutár’)”.

Le digraph “ph” sona como le “f”: “phase”, “philosophia”, “phenomeno”.

Le littera “q”, in “qua”, “que”, “qui”, e “quo” sona “kwa”, “kwe”, “kwi”, e “kwo”, respectivemente. Ma le pronomines “qui” e “que” sona “ki” e “ke”, respectivemente. E le pronunciation de “benque” es “benké”.

Le littera “t” ante le diphtongos “ia”, “ie”, e “io” sona como “ts”. Exemplos: “action (aktsión)”, “gratia (grátsia)”, “differential (differentsiál)”, “martio (mártsio)”, “gratiose (gratsióse)”, “etiam (étsiam)”. Ma quando le “i” es accentuate, illo sona como “t”: “democratia (democratía)”, “garantia (garantía)”.

Le digrapho “th” se pronuncia como “t”, pro exemplo “arthritis” (artrítis).

Le littera “w” se pronuncia como “v” o como “u” secundo le origine del vocabulo: “walzer (váltser) whisky [uíski].

Le accento del parolas de interlingua cade predominantely sur le penultime syllaba. Il a exceptiones, inter alteres le future del verbos (esserá, laborará) e le nomines de alicun dies del septimana (lunedí, martedí, mercuridí, jovedí, venerdí).

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Notes on the Grammar of Interlingua

The grammar of Interlingua is very simple, and a lot can be learned about it by reading bi- and multililngual texts. But for some people these brief notes could be useful.

NOUNS:

The definite article is “le” without variations for gender or number: “le melodia, le melodias”, “le animal, le animales”, “le patre, le patres”, “le libro le libros”, “le error, le errores”.

The indefinite article is “un” without any variations for gender or number: “un patre”, “un matre”, “un homine”, “un femina”, “un puero”, “un puera”, etc.

The plural of nouns ends with “-s” o “-es” if the noun ends with a consonant (Even if the nouns end with “-c”, “–hes” is added to form the plural. Notice that this is also a characteristic of Italian spelling, which uses the form “che” instead of the form“que” that is found in Interlingua and other Romance languages.

ADJECTIVES:

Le adjective is invariable. It does not have different forms for gender or number: “le brave soldato”, “le brave soldatos”; “le brave matre”, “le brave matres”.

Adjectives are compared with “plus”, “minus”, e “tan”: “Alberto es tan alte como Alicia (Albert is as tall as Alice),” “Alberto es plus alte que Alicia (Albert is taller than Alice),” “Alberto es minus alte que Alicia (Albert is less tall than Alice).”

The superlative is expressed with “le plus”: “Alberto es le plus alte de omne le homines del gruppo (Albert is the tallest of all the men in the group).”

Comparisons for equality are expressed with “tanto…como” or “si…como”: “Alberto es tanto alte como Alicia; Alberto es si alte como Alicia (Albert is as tall as Alice).”

Adjectives can be placed before or after nouns, but they more often come after nouns: “un libro interessante (an interesting book)”, “le brave soldato (the brave soldier)”.

“Bon,” “mal,” “grande,” e “parve” can be compared like any other adjectives, but there are alternative forms for these adjectives: “bon, melior, optime,” “mal, pejor, pessime,” “grande, major, maxime,” and “parve, minor minime.”

ADVERBS:

The suffix “-mente” is used to convert an adjective into an adverb: “natural, naturalmente,” “clar, clarmente,” “extrememente interessante.”

The adjective “certe” can be converted to an adverb with “-mente”: “certemente (certainly)”, but there is an alternative form “certo.”

If an adjective ends with “-c”, “-amente” is added to form an adverb: “photographic, photograficamente.”

PRONOUNS:

The singular personal pronouns are “io,” “tu,” “ille,” “illa,” and “illo” (neuter). The plural pronouns are “nos,” “vos,” “illes,” “illas,” and “illos.”

The accusative and dative form of the pronouns are “me.” “te,” “le,” “la,” “lo,” “nos,” “vos,” and “les/las/los.” The dative can also be expressed with “a” or “pro”: “Ille dava le libro a Alicia. > Ille la lo dava. Ille lo dava a illa (He gave the book to Alice > He gave her it > He gave it to her). Ille la lo faceva. > Ille lo faceva pro illa (He made it for her.” These last two forms are clearer.

The form “il” is used in statements like “Il niva (It is snowing)” and “Il face frigide (It’s cold).”

“Il” plus a form of “haber” are used to express simple existence: “Il ha un serpente in le casa (There is a snake in the house).” “Il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno (There are several new students in the school this year).”

“On” is an indefinite pronoun that is used as the subject in a statement:”On dice que il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno (It is said that there are several new students in the school this year).” Another way of expressing this concept is with “se”: “Se dice que il ha plure nove studentes in le schola iste anno (It is said that there are several new students in the school this year.”

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES:

The possessive adjectives are “mi,” “tu,” “su,” “nostre,” “vostre,” and “lor.” For people who speak French or Italian this form is natural. People who speak a Romance language used on the Iberian Peninsula should avoid the use of “su” in statements like “Illes parla lor linguas native multo ben (They speak their native languages very well.”. “Illes parla su linguas native multo ben” is not correct in Interlingua.

Note these forms: “mi casa e le tue (my house and yours),” “mi casa e le sue (my house and his/hers,” “lor casa e le nostre (their house and ours),” “lor casa e le vostre (their house and yours),” “mi casa e le lore (my house and theirs).” These forms also have plural versions: “mi casa e le sues (my house and his houses),” “lor casa e le nostres (their house and our houses),” “lor casa e le vostres (their house and your houses),” “mi casa e le lores (my house and their houses).”

NUMBERS:

The cardinal numbers are “un,” “duo,” “tres,” “quatro,” “cinque,” “sex,” “septe,” “octo,” “novem,” “dece” (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) and “vinti,” “trenta,” “quaranta,” “cinquanta,” “sexanta,” “septanta,” “octanta,” “novanta,” “cento,” “mille” (20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 1.000) and “dece (e) tres”, “septanta (e) novem”, “cento (e) vinti (e) duo”, “mille duo centos octanta (e) cinque” (13, 79, 122, 1,285).

The ordinal numbers are “prime,” “secunde,” “tertie,” “quarte,” “quinte,” “sexte,” “septime,” “octave,” “none,” “decime” (first, second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth), “dece prime”, “dece secunde” … “dece none” (eleventh, twelfth, … nineteenth), “vintessime,” “vinti prime,” “venti secunde,” “trentessime,” “trenta tertie” (twentieth, twenty first, twenty second, thirtieth, thirty third) “quarantesime”, “cinquantesime”, “sexantesime”, “septantesime”, “octantesime”, “novantesime”, (fortieth, fiftieth, sixtieth, seventieth, eightieth, ninetieth), “cento novantesime” (one hundred and ninetieth) cento novanta octave (one hundred ninety-eighth) “mille tres centos trenta prime” (one thousand three hundred and thirty first).

VERBS:

Infinitives end in “-ar,” “-er,” or “-ir”: “amar,” “leger,” “dormir.”

To form the present the final “-r” of the infinitive is removed: “ama,” “lege,” “dormi.” The verbs “esser,” “haber,” and “vader” have shortened present-tense forms, “es,” “ha,” “va.” The present tense (like other tenses) does not change for person or number: “(io, tu, ille/illa/illo, nos, vos, illes/illas) ama”.

Third-person reflexives are formed with “se”: “Petro ama mover se (Peter likes to move around),” “Petro e Roberto se move (Peter and Roberto move around)”.

The past is formed with the suffix “-va,” which is added to the present: “io parla > io palava,” “io usa > io usava.” To express the immediate past “venir de” can be used: “Io veni de mangiar (I just ate).”

To form the future “-a” is added to the infinitive: “nos essera,” “illa laborara.” The near future is expressed with “va” or “va a” and the infinitive (in other words the present of “vader” and the infinitive: “Illa va (a) laborer (she is going to work).”

Progressive tenses can be expressed with “star a” plus the infinitive: “Ille sta a lavorar in iste momento (He is working at this moment).”

The past participles of verbs ending in “-ar” are formed by deleting the “-ar” and attaching the suffix “-ate” (“parlar,” “parlate”). Other verbs have the suffix“-ite”: (“viver > vivite”; “audir > audite”).

Perfect tenses are formed with “haber” and the past participle of a verb: “Io ha vivite (I have lived),” “Tu habeva vivite (You had lived),” “Ille habera vivite (He will have lived).”

To form the present participle verbs ending in “-ar” eliminate the “-ar” and add “-ante”: “amar > amante.” Verbs that end in “-er” eliminate the “-er” and add “-ente”: “leger > legente.” Le verbos que fini in “-ir” elimina le “-ir” e adde “-iente”: “finir > finiente.”

To form the conditional, the suffix “-ea” is added to the infinitive: “desirar > desirarea,” “servir > servirea,” “proponer > proponerea.”

In interlingua the subjunctive does not exist. Only the verb “essere” has the form “sia”. Examples: “Si io esseva ric, io comprarea un grande villa (If I were rich, I would buy a big villa),” “Si io habeva essite ric, io haberea comprate un grande villa (If I had been rich, I would have bought a big villa.” “Que illa veni! (Let her come!)”

The auxiliary verb “esser” is used to form passive statements. It is used with past participles: The preposition “per” is used to express the agent in a passive statement: “Petro es amate per Anna (Peter is loved by Anna)”, “Le libro esseva legite per Andrea (The book was read by Anna).”

The imperative has the same form as the present tense: “Continua! (Continue!)” “Stoppa! (Stop!)”. The softened form of the imperative is “vole ben”: “Vole ben continuar/fermar… (Please continue, close…).” For the first person plural “vamos” can be used: “Vamos continuar (Let’s continue)”. It is also possible to use the word “que” plus the indicative: “Que nos continua! (Let’s continue!).” For other persons and numbers only “que”can be used: “Que illa veni! (Let her come!)”, “Que vos parla! (Let’s speak!)”, “Que tu parla a tu matre! (Speak to your mother!)”

PRONUNCIATION:

The pronunciation of many letters is the same as in other European languages. It is important, however, to take note the pronunciation of the following letters:

The letters “cc” before “e”, and “i” sound like “cts” (for example “accento [aktsénto]” e “accender [aktsendér].”

Le digraph “ch” normally sounds like “k”, for example “architecto (arkitékto),” “bronchitis (bronkítis),” “chirurgo (kirúrgo),” e “psyche ([p]síke).” In words of French origin the “ch” sounds like the “sh” in English, for example “artichoc (artishók).”

The letter “g” normally sounds like the international value of this letter, for example in “grande,” “agente,” “collegio,” “geographia,” “pedagogia,” “vage.” But it is pronounced as in French in the case of the suffixes “-age”, “-agiar”, e “-agiose”. This is also true in some words with “-gi-” (for example “avantage (‘avantázhe’ or ‘avantádzhe’),” “viage (‘viázhe’ or ‘viádzhe’),” “forgia (‘fórzha’ or ‘fórdzhe’)”, “legier (‘lezhyér’ or ‘ledzhér’)”, “mangia (‘mánzha’ or ‘mándzha’).

The letter sequence “gn” never sounds like the French “gn” but like a “g” immediately followed by an “n”: “gnomo”, “magnific.”

The letter “h” can be aspirated a little in words like “haber” and “hotel.” It is mute in the digraphs “th”e “rh” as in “rhapsodia,” “rheumatism,” “athlete,” “throno,” “rhythmo.”

The letter “j” generally sounds the way it does in French, as in “jocar (zhokár),” and it can be pronounced like a semivowel “i” in words like “adjutar (‘adzhutár’ or ‘adyutár’).”

The digraph “ph” sounds like an “f”: “phase (fáse),” “philosophia (filosofía),” “phenomeno (fenómeno).”

The letter “q”, in “qua,” “que,” “qui,” e “quo” has the sounds “kwa”, “kwe”, “kwi”, and “kwo”, respectively. But the pronouns “qui” and “que” sound like “ki” and “ke”, respectively. And the pronunciation of “benque” is “benké”.

The letter “t” in front of the diphthongs “ia”, “ie”, and “io” sound like “ts.” Examples: “action (aktsión),” “gratia (grátsia),” “differential (differentsiál),” “martio (mártsio),” “gratiose (gratsióse),” “etiam (étsiam).” But when the “i” es accented, it sounds like “t”: “democratia (democratía),” “garantia (garantía).”

The digraph “th” is pronounced like “t”, for example “arthritis” (artrítis).

The letter “w” is pronounced like “v” or like “u” according to the origin of the word: “walzer (váltser) whisky [uíski].

Stress on the words of Interlingua falls for the most part on the second-to-the last syllable. There are exceptions, among them the future of verbs (esserá, laborará) and the names of some of the days of the week (lunedí, martedí, mercuridí, jovedí, venerdí).